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Epidemiology International Journal Research Article 19 min read

Security Perception from the Pandemic caused by the SARS-COV-2 Coronavirus and COVID-19 Disease

Lirios CG*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2639-2038  10.23880/eij-16000180  Received: January 14, 2021  Published: February 03, 2021
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Keywords
Instrument’s Reliability Instruments Validity Security Perception
Abstract

Security has concern authorities and civil society during last years. Different society’s substrates have different perceptions on security. Present document explores reliability and validity of an instrument which measures security perception in bachelor’s students by reviewing seven dimensions: territorial, national, public (government), human, public (self-protection), private and internaut. Accordingly, setting values and residual permitted to accept the null hypothesis significant relationship between the theoretical dimensions with respect to the weighted factors.

Introduction

At the time of writing, the pandemic caused by the SARS-COV-2 coronavirus and the COVID-19 disease has infected 10million, sickened 5million and killed 500,000 people worldwide. In Mexico, it has infected 200,000 sickened 150,000 and killed 25,000 people. In this scenario, the perception of security is a central issue on the citizen’s agenda not only due to the health crisis, but also the economic crisis. In this way, the escalation of violence against vulnerable groups such as children, women and the elderly has increased exponentially and added to the risks posed by the pandemic. Derived from this situation, the perception of security emerges, develops and consolidates as a central issue on the citizen’s agenda. It is a phenomenon in which potential victims appreciate the pandemic as unpredictable in its effects, immeasurable in its consequences and uncontrollable by the authorities.

Such phenomena, the pandemic and security, converge in the violence against the vulnerable groups as a result of the frustration of the heads of families in the face of unemployment, famine and unhealthiness. In this way, the areas at greatest risk are the most densely populated such as Mexico City, mainly in the Iztapalapa mayor’s office. Precisely, the objective of the present work is to specify a model for the study of the perceived security in the face of the pandemic, confinement and violence towards vulnerable groups such as the elderly, women and children with respect to the head of the family, civil and health authorities. The contributions of the study to the discipline are

  • Systematic review of the state of the art,
  • Systematization of findings,
  • Proposal of a theoretical and conceptual model,
  • Methodological approach,
  • Diagnosis of the problem,
  • Discussion between the findings and literature reviewed,
  • Design of pedagogical sequences.

Thus, the first section reviews the theoretical and conceptual approaches that explain the phenomenon. The second section presents the results of studies related to the subject. In the third section the axes, trajectories and relationships between the variables are proposed. In the fourth section, the decisions to approach the problem are presented. In the fifth section, the results are described. In the sixth section, these findings are discussed. The seventh section reflects on the contribution and application of study in the classroom.

Theory of Security Perception

Security, in several countries, have been suffered a lack, or absence, particularly when it is talked about governmental participation. Public security can be understood it as the state labor to protect and safe its population from internal dangers or threats. In Latin-American countries, public safe keeping is perceived as absent, due to big amount of press coverages which exposes mentioned lack Rincon RM, et al. [1].

In case of Mexico, day by day, they appear in the news, a bigger quantity of red notes’ coverages, which shows a violent face of the country. The structure of perception of security in: Territorial security; National security; Public safety (State as general attorney); Human security; Public safety (Self-protection); Private security; and, internaut perception of safety, scopes Bustos JM, et al. [2].

Public safety events occur throughout the world, posing a threat to personal safety, property and national defense. Mexico’s security problems are like the general context in Latin America in many ways. However, Mexico has an influence of organized crime due to the levels of consumption of illegal products in the US market UU Carreon JG, et al. [3]. Public security has traditionally been understood as the function of the State that consists in protecting its citizens from illegal attacks on (or crimes against) their property, physical integrity, sexual freedom, etc. The meaning of public safety is inferred as security of persons: inherence, inseparability, breadth and focus on justice [4].

It is stated that our reality’s perception is subjective and that our world’s perception depends of our life conditions. Perception of reality operates from a superior order, from a mesosystem that would include both (perception and reality), and in which each appear like elements and not like closed and independent units. The notion that: what we see, might not be what is truly there, has troubled and tantalized all the population in every sector, class, or roll of our society. Different population’s sector would have different perception of security Carreon JG, et al. [5].

It can also be mentioned that cultural stigma in the country, also affects and promotes a lack of public safe keeping, due to the general manner of Mexican population’s thinking, which in comparison with other cultures, appear to be like sluggish and with a short interest to develop in academic, professional, social, among other aspects. The administration of public security is the implementation of public policies that justify the guidance of the State in the prevention of crime and the administration of justice, but only the citizens’ distrust of government action is evidenced by a growing perception of insecurity reported in the literature in seven dimensions: territorial, national, public (government), human, public (self-protection), private and internaut [6].

Mexico can be seen from diverse scopes like economic, historic, or social. In that sense, there exist other sub-scopes (or sub-scales in the social scope) like health, public security, education, environmental consciousness, among others. As mentioned before, different population’s sectors have different perception of social sub-scopes (or sub-scales). In case of bachelor’s students, as its scholar formation gives the chance to generate critic manner of thinking, that population’s sector can generate a solid perception of factor that affects society’s context [7].

Studies of Security Perception

The security perception theory alludes to dimensions that are convergent with respect to the trust between rulers and ruled. In this way, the central premise of the theory is that citizens have unfavorable or positive expectations of their authorities in charge of law enforcement and crime prevention, as well as social rehabilitation Carreon J, et al. [8]. In this sense, security is a socio-political phenomenon, but reduced to media expectations of government action, as well as mistrust or empathy for its strategies, programs or policies in terms of safeguarding the integrity and dignity of its governed, as well as private property and public interests. The dimensions of this perception of security have been structured in socio-spatial terms such as the territory or in social issues such as the nation, but with emphasis on the situation of sectors, strata or groups such as the so-called public and citizen security, as well as the interest’s individuals such as private and Internet security Garcia C, et al. [9].

Territorial and national security have traditionally been the most widely addressed from risk sociology to account for the impact of climate change on sea level and coasts, as well as risk events derived from droughts, frosts, fires, floods or earthquakes in vulnerable areas, the trafficking of species or the appearance of epidemics due to the invasion of animal territories [10]. The so-called biosecurity focuses on food as the main indicator of health level in the face of a health or environmental crisis [11]. In this sense, territorial or national security should have specialized in public because each sector or social stratum demanded different needs according to contingent situations. The citizenization of this security gave way to the individualization of expectations and resources, leading to both personal and virtual self- protection, with the emergence of cyber security.

There are more differences between biosecurity and cybersecurity, but both are essential for the rule of law, the administration of justice, the procurement of crime, social rehabilitation and collective pacification. From a traditional perspective, both dimensions are observable as complementary, but from a progressive approach they are assumed as concomitants. In other words, the effects of climate change are increasingly linked to identity theft, extortion or cooptation, since niches of environmental and social deterioration that originate cybercrime are assumed. Or, based on cybersecurity, the data of robberies, kidnappings or homicides in situations of natural disaster or health contingencies are observed in real time.

Specification a Model for Study of Security Perception

From the theoretical, conceptual and empirical review, the relationships between the variables were modeled (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Measurement Model. Note: Elaborated with data study; F = Factor, R = Indicator; e = Error measurement Indicator; HC = Concomitant Hypothesis; HR = Reflective Hypothesis, HE = Error Hypothesis.
Click to enlarge
Figure 1: Measurement Model. Note: Elaborated with data study; F = Factor, R = Indicator; e = Error measurement Indicator; HC = Concomitant Hypothesis; HR = Reflective Hypothesis, HE = Error Hypothesis.

In this way, territorial and national security are concomitant given their level of generality in the protection of the country, as well as the multilateralism involved in international or regional pacification measures. In the cases of public and citizen security, both share the imperatives of safeguarding common goods that, although they are public, can be established as socially and environmentally available to future generations. In this sense, private and digital security is also similar in terms of preventing crimes that threaten the dignity and integrity of the individual rather than of society.

Null Hypothesis

The theoretical relationships between security perceptions are consistent with the observed data. This is so because it is presumed that the instrument measures the seven dimensions of security, as well as its consistency when applied to bulls, scenarios and samples. Furthermore, safety as a multidimensional phenomenon suggests measurement levels concomitant (HC) with each other, reflective (HR) and with errors (HE) attributed to variance of the responses.

The concomitant hypotheses allude to the covariances between the dimensions of the phenomenon, as well as to the explanation of its trajectory structure if a new specification or modeling arose by testing the null hypothesis [12]. The reflecting hypotheses allude to the relationships between the factors with respect to the indicators, suggesting the structuring of the phenomenon, as well as the convergence of the responses to the reactive that measure each feature of the dimensions [13]. The hypotheses of measurement errors refer to unexplained variances in estimating the structure of concomitant and reflective relationships. Furthermore, it suggests the probable incidence of other factors and indicators not included in the model [14].

Method

The experimental design consists of a non-experimental, exploratory and transversal study. The sample was made with a non-random selection of 100 students (M = 21.3 SD = 2.1 age and M = 9’865.23 SD = 345.32 monthly income) in a public university in the State of Mexico. 44% are women and 66% are men.

50% of surveyed people are under 18 years (M = 17.29 and SD = 1.24), 40% are between 18 and 22 years (M = 20.14 and SD = 2.36) and 10% more 22 years (M = 23.25 and SD = 4.36). 30% admitted less than 3’500 pesos (M = 3’200 and SD = 123.25), 25% between 3’500 and 7’000 monthly (M = 5’467 and SD = 345.25) and 45% enter more than 7’000 monthly (M = 8’913 and SD = 135.47).

Scale perception of insecurity was constructed which includes 100 reagents perception around security: territorial, national, public (government), human, public (self-protection), private and internaut. Subscale perception of territorial security. Refers to expectations about the state as rector of the public peace [15]. It includes four reagents respond with any of six response options: 0 = “not at all likely” to 5 = “very likely”. Subscale perception of national security. Refers to expectations concerning the State as procurator of offenses against democracy, national identity or the interests of the population [16]. It includes four reagents respond with any of six response options: 0 = “not at all likely” to 5 = “very likely”.

Subscale perception of public safety. Expectations regarding the allusive the state as general attorney [17]. It includes four reagents that are answered with any of six response options: 0 = “not at all likely” to 5 = “very likely”. Subscale perception of human security. Refers to the expectations generated before the crime prevention policies, the administration of justice and the promotion of social peace [18]. It includes four reagents respond with any of six response options: 0 = “not at all likely” to 5 = “very likely”.

Subscale perception of public security. It refers to the expectations that citizens generated from the State distrust and alienation with its security institutions, while interest focuses on civil remedies for self-protection [19]. It includes four reagents respond with any of six response options: 0=”not at all likely” to 5=”very likely”. Subscale perception of private security. It refers to civil society expectations generated from the State as unable to prevent crime and fight corruption [20]. It includes four reagents that are answered with any of six response options: 0 = “not at all likely” to 5 = “very likely”.

Subscale Internaut perception of safety. It refers to the expectations that Internet users consider generated from the state spy your search for information, content selection and dissemination of topics [21]. It includes four reagents that are answered with any of six response options; 0 = “not at all likely” to 5 = “very likely”. Delphi technique was used to establish the homogeneity of the concepts in the reactants. We surveyed the exhibition in the lobby of the library of his university. Data were processed with Statistical Analysis Package for Social Sciences (SPSS for its acronym in English) and Structural Analysis of Moments (AMOS for its acronym in English) 18.0 versions. Reliability with Cronbach’s alpha, validity test Bartlett, KMO and factorial weight was estimated.

Cronbach’s alpha was estimated to establish the internal consistency of the overall scale and subscales. Bootstrap parameter was calculated to set the sampling when it is not possible to fully utilize the data and only a portion of the distribution is used. Adequacy and sphericity with parameters Kayser Meyer Olkin and Bartlett’s test were calculated. An exploratory factor analysis with principal axes promax rotation and obliquity criterion was performed. The test of the hypothesis was made with the estimation of the parameters of adjustment and residual. A second study was conducted with 100 merchants from a locality with a high index of public insecurity, considering their participation in the prevention of crime and the employment of private security. The same scale was used, and the information was processed with the same software and parameters.

Results

Internal consistency, according to data collection and analysis, in overall scale (0.793) and the subscales F1 = Perception of territorial security (alpha of 0.792 and 22% of the total variance explained); F2 = Perception on national security (alpha of 0.709 and 19% of the explained variance); F3 = Perception of public safety (alpha of 0.785 and 17% of the variance explained); F4 = Perception of human security (alpha of 0.782 and 14% of the explained variance); F5 = Perception of public security (alpha of 0.792 and 12% of the explained variance); F6 = Perception private security (alpha of 0.794 and 9% of the explained variance); and F7 = Perception internaut safety (alpha of 0.731 and 7% of the explained variance) is discrete because evidence the differences between the contexts of study in which security was conceptualized (Table 1).

ReactiveMeanStandardKurtosisAlphaTerritorialNationalPublicHumanCitizenPrivateInternaut
r11.3,591,20.79,37
r21,3,511,40.7,31
r31,40.361,50.790.36
r41,7,931,60.770.38
r51,7,831,90.780.47
r61,1,531,80.750.46
r71.4,471,60.710.4
r81,3,431,70.780.41
r93.4,881,2,710.3

Table 1: Correlations & Covariations of the Factors. Note: Elaborated with data study; Perception of territorial security; Percep

  • r10
  • 3.7
  • ,69
  • 1.1
  • 0.73
  • 0.36 r11
  • 3.4
  • ,91
  • 1,5
  • 0.78
  • 0.34 r12
  • 3,1
  • 0.5
  • 1,3
  • 0.7
  • ,31 r13
  • 1,4
  • 0.5
  • 1,0
  • 0.77
  • 0.3 r14
  • 1,8
  • ,63
  • 1,1
  • 0.73
  • 0.3 r15
  • 1,7
  • ,52
  • 1,3
  • 0.74
  • 0.38 r16
  • 1,2
  • ,68
  • 1,2
  • 0.78
  • ,31 r17
  • 3.5
  • ,79
  • 1,6
  • 0.73
  • 0.39 r18
  • 3.7
  • 0.89
  • 1,8
  • 0.72
  • 0.38 r19
  • 3.5
  • ,59
  • 1,9
  • 0.7
  • 0.39 r20
  • 3.8
  • ,62
  • 1,3
  • 0.72
  • 0.3 r21
  • 1,3
  • ,59
  • 1,3
  • 0.74
  • 0.4 r22
  • 1.5
  • ,63
  • 1,2
  • 0.73
  • 0.46 r23
  • 1,7
  • ,31
  • 1,4
  • 0.74
  • ,43 r24
  • 1,8
  • ,58
  • 1,1
  • 0.74
  • 0.47 r25
  • 1.9
  • ,83
  • 1,0
  • 0.79
  • 0.4 r26
  • 1.4
  • ,59
  • 1,3
  • 0.74
  • 0.48 r27
  • 1,5
  • 0.55
  • 1,1
  • 0.74
  • ,47 r28
  • 1,0
  • ,68
  • 1,5
  • ,78
  • ,48

Table 2: Descriptive of Instrument.

A second study, once the factors were established, possible and associative linear relationships were estimated to investigate the emergency of a second order factor common to the seven first-order factors found (Table 2).

TerritorialNationalPublicHumanCitizenPrivateInternautTerritorialNationalPublicHumanCitizenPrivateInternaut
Territorial1,01,9
National,32***1,0,451,8
Public,31*,31*1,0,41,321,7
Human,35**,32*,30*1,0,48,49,431,6
Citasen,39*,33**,36*,36**1,0,40,40,41,401,8
Príivate,34*,32*,38*,34*,39*1,0,43,41,37,47,431,5
Internaut,30*,31**,31*,35*,32*,36**1,0,47,43,43,45,42,411,9

Table 3: Correlations & Covariations of the Factors. Note: Elaborated with data study; Perception of territorial security; Percep

Once the relationships between the factors were established, their trajectories were modeled with respect to a common factor that the literature identifies as a perception of security to explain an emerging phenomenon of awareness, prevention and demand for the rule of law with the administration of justice (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Measurement Model. Note: Elaborated with data study; C= Construct, F= Factor, R= Indicator, d= Disturbance of measurement factor, e= Error measurement indicator, HC= Convergent hypothesis, HD= Disturbance hypothesis, HR= reflective hypothesis, HE= Error hypothesis.
Click to enlarge
Figure 2: Measurement Model. Note: Elaborated with data study; C= Construct, F= Factor, R= Indicator, d= Disturbance of measurement factor, e= Error measurement indicator, HC= Convergent hypothesis, HD= Disturbance hypothesis, HR= reflective hypothesis, HE= Error hypothesis.
Figure 3: Structural Equation Modelling. Note: Elaborated with data study; C = Security Governance: F1 = Perception of territorial security; F2 = Perception on national security; F3 = Perception of public safety; F4 = Perception of human security; F5 = Perception of citizen security; F6 = Perception private security; F7 = Perception internaut safety.
Click to enlarge
Figure 3: Structural Equation Modelling. Note: Elaborated with data study; C = Security Governance: F1 = Perception of territorial security; F2 = Perception on national security; F3 = Perception of public safety; F4 = Perception of human security; F5 = Perception of citizen security; F6 = Perception private security; F7 = Perception internaut safety.

Figure 3: Structural Equation Modelling. Note: Elaborated with data study; C = Security Governance: F1 = Perception of territorial security; F2 = Perception on national security; F3 = Perception of public safety; F4 = Perception of human security; F5 = Perception of citizen security; F6 = Perception private security; F7 = Perception internaut safety.

The relationships between factors, disturbances, indicators and errors were specified in order to test the convergent hypotheses (HC) between the factors of the first order with respect to a common factor of the second order, the hypotheses of disturbance (HD) that explain the influence of other factors in the model, the reflective hypotheses (HR) that establish the first-order latent factors from their indicators and the error hypotheses (HE) that explain the incidence of other indicators in the first-order factors (Figure 3) [22, 23].

The values of the adjustment and residual parameters ⌠χ2 = 135.34 (32gl) p = 0.054; GFI = 0.995; CFI = 0.990; RMSEA = 0,003⌡suggest the non-rejection of the null hypothesis relative to the significant differences between the theoretical relationships established in the literature with respect to the empirical relationships found in the study.

Discussion

The objective of the present work was to confirm the factorial structure of the perception of safety, although the research design limits the findings to the research sample, suggesting the extension of the work towards the expansion of the factors, since in their entirety they explain 55%. In relation to the theory of the perception of security, which raises nine dimensions related to territory, nation, citizenship, public, private, human and internet, this work demonstrated that human security is the factor that most reflects the perceptual security structure. Lines of study referring to the dimensions of human security will allow us to notice conflict scenarios between rulers and ruled, as well as the emergence of citizen and private security.

Regarding security studies where a continuous coercive and persuasive state in its relationship with citizen’s stands out, this work has shown that human security is a dimension that explains the differences and similarities between rulers and ruled. The development of this dimension will allow us to notice the transition from a coercive system to another persuasive one. That is, the security attributed to the legitimate violence of a democratic government will be observed up to the security that demarcates the regime from all responsibility and recharges the citizen with the attribution of prevention by confining their expression and their property.

Regarding the modeling of the seven dimensions of security perception, the present study has shown that these explain 55% of the variance and warn of the emergence of a common factor that the literature identifies as second order. Research lines concerning the emergence of this common factor will allow evaluating, accrediting, and certifying the relations between rulers and governors in matters of multidimensional security. In summary, perceived security is a multidimensional psychological phenomenon since it derives from the relations between authorities and citizens with respect to crime prevention, the administration of justice and social rehabilitation, although other dimensions such as sectoral or media security to explain the impact of policies, strategies and programs on civil decisions and actions.

Conclusion

The objective of this work was to corroborate the factorial structure of perceived safety, although the research design limits the finding of the research scenario, suggests the construction of an agenda and the incidence in security policies based on opinions and expectations of the governed with respect to the performance of their rulers. In Mexico, a common interpretation or idea of which country is lacking in security prevails. The absence of custody is influenced by the presence of organized crime, the illegal sale of drugs and weapons, and the corruption available in each branch of the government, among the main aspects. The correlations of reliability and validity when the unit far shows that there are other dimensions linked to construct. In this sense, the inclusion of self-control explains the effects of state propaganda regarding crime prevention, law enforcement and peace education on lifestyles of civilian sectors.

The contribution of this study is concerned about the reliability and validity of an instrument which measured seven dimensions of security: territorial, national, human, public, public, private and digital. The studies on public safety identify in the government’s expectations the predominant factor that explains the phenomenon as an efficient, effective and effective institution, but in the present work the emergence of this phenomenon has been demonstrated from a structure of perceptions around the personal, citizen, public, human, national and territorial agenda.

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@article{lirios2021,
  title   = {Security Perception from the Pandemic caused by the SARS-COV-2 Coronavirus and COVID-19 Disease},
  author  = {Lirios CG},
  journal = {Epidemiology International Journal},
  year    = {2021},
  volume  = {5},
  number  = {1},
  doi     = {10.23880/eij-16000180}
}
Lirios CG (2021). Security Perception from the Pandemic caused by the SARS-COV-2 Coronavirus and COVID-19 Disease. Epidemiology International Journal, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.23880/eij-16000180
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Security Perception from the Pandemic caused by the SARS-COV-2 Coronavirus and COVID-19 Disease
AU  - Lirios CG
JO  - Epidemiology International Journal
PY  - 2021
VL  - 5
IS  - 1
DO  - 10.23880/eij-16000180
ER  -