The Experience of Counterproductive Leadership on Mental Health and Impact on Retention in U.S. Marines: A Phenomenological Study

Counterproductive Leadership

Refers to leadership traits that prevent a working environment conducive to mission accomplishment [3]. Counterproductive leaders display abusive, self-serving, incompetent, and erratic and corrupt behaviors that decrease followers’ well-being, engagement, morale, commitment, cohesion, effectiveness, readiness, and productivity, and ultimately undermines the organization’s readiness and ability to accomplish the mission in the long term [3]. Toxic leadership refers to leaders who prioritize their own interests, exercise power abusively, create an unhealthy work environment, and damage trust, morale, and organizational effectiveness [4, 5]. They display self- centeredness, authoritarianism, little to no empathy, bullying and abusive behaviors, unfair treatment, and are resistant to feedback [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].

Demographics

In the Marine Corps, men significantly outnumber women in both numbers and percentages. In 2022, 90.6% of the force were men and 9.4% were women [10]. Additionally, 80.1% of enlisted members and 81.4% of officers self- identified as White, 25% of enlisted and officers members (collectively) self-identified as Hispanic or Latino, 11.7% of enlisted members and 5.9% of officers self-identified as Black or African American, 3.5% of enlisted members and 4.1% of officers self-identified as Asian, 1.4% of enlisted members and 2.5% of officers self-identified as multi-racial, 1.2% of enlisted members and 0.7% of officers self-identified as Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 1.2% of enlisted members and 1.1% of officers self-identified as American Indian or Alaska Native [10].

Implications of Counterproductive Leadership This topic is important because the military faces its most challenging recruitment environment in 50 years [1]. Only one in four people in the United States meet military recruitment requirements [1], which means that as service members transition off active duty, the military branches have difficulty replacing those individuals, leading to personnel shortages, increased workloads, and stress amongst active- duty personnel who attempt to fill the gaps. This stress can have acute and long-lasting effects on mental and physical health [11, 12] and be more costly to the institution because of the amount of time and money it takes to train personnel. For example, the cost to train some cyber professionals is approximately $220,000 to $500,000 over a period of one to three years [1]. The Department of War cannot continue to financially support these training costs; it must retain its members.

Impact of Demographics to Mental and Physical Health

Both men and women of all ranks are subject to experiences with counterproductive leaders. However, some data suggests women and individuals in lower ranks may be more impacted. In Marmot M, et al. [13], authors studied the association between employment grade and health problems in 10,314 British civil servants, the equivalent job positions of U.S. Marines. This study is relevant because it shows the correlations between grade of employment (i.e., military rank) and health inequities when workers encountered leadership like what this study explored. Results showed that individuals in a lower employment grade (i.e., lower military rank) had more prevalent health problems like angina, ischemia, and symptoms of chronic bronchitis, reported having less satisfaction with their work situation, less control over their work lives, less varied work, working in a fast-paced environment, less social interaction with family members and friends, having fewer hobbies, and more financial difficulty than those in a higher employment grade [13]. Additionally, people in lower employment grades perceived their health to be worse and were at an increased risk of participating in health-risk behaviors like smoking, poor diet, and lack of exercise compared to those in higher employment grades [13]. Collectively, this study showed disparities between people who work in higher and lower grade employments, which is comparable to the military hierarchy, and its association with negative health outcomes.

Other studies show associations between women’s experiences and increased risk of poor mental health. Women who experience high rates of gender discrimination and gender microaggressions are more at risk for mental health problems like depression, anxiety, trauma, and lower self-esteem [14, 15, 16, 17].

Stress and Performance

Chronic stress is defined as a “consistent sense of feeling pressured and overwhelmed over a long period of time” [18]. Symptoms include aches and pains, sleep disturbances, low energy, difficulty concentrating, irritability, changes in appetite, increased substance use, and emotional and social withdrawal [19] and has been linked to physical and mental health issues like inflammation, cardiovascular dysfunction, diabetes, cancer, autoimmune syndromes, and depression and anxiety disorders [19].

Counterproductive leaders can influence experiences of chronic stress which can lead to symptoms of anxiety and depression, emotional exhaustion [20, 21, 22], reduced self- esteem [23], burnout [24], and sleep disturbances [20, 25]. Symptoms of depression are also associated with decreased productivity at work, increased mistakes at work, decreased ability to meet work deadlines, increased absenteeism from work, lower morale, increased conflict with coworkers and supervisors, and increased medical and mental health care utilization [12]. An analysis of absenteeism and stress at work revealed that participants who reported significant job stress missed an average of three days of work, those who reported suffering from some symptoms of depression reported missing an average of two more days of work, and those who reported suffering from severe depressive symptoms reported missing almost five more days of work, compared to those who reported no symptoms of job stress or depression [12].

Substance Use

Exposure to counterproductive leader behaviors can also lead to greater instances of alcohol use [20, 26] which increases the likelihood of chronic diseases [27]. These mental and physical health ailments negatively impact military readiness by decreasing work performance, ethical compliance, attention, concentration, cognition, motivation, self-efficacy [12, 28], and innovation [28, 29] among U.S. Marines. Under counterproductive leadership, followers may cope by increasing their use of substances like alcohol [20, 26], illegal drugs [30], and nicotine [20, 30], which increases their risk for disease [27] and negatively impacts their overall health. Multiple studies show a positive correlation between alcohol consumption, stress levels, and avoidance coping [20, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34] suggesting the more stress individuals endure, the more likely they are to consume more alcohol and use maladaptive coping strategies.

One study conducted on Marines showed that 25% of Marines who had no history of addiction diagnoses [alcohol and tobacco use] before they endured a high-stress duty station received an addiction diagnosis during or after their assignment, compared to Marines who did not endure a high-stress duty assignment [20].

Interpersonal Relationship Distress

Counterproductive leaders can negatively affect interpersonal relationships by influencing maladaptive coping behaviors. Experiences with counterproductive leaders can increase partner and familial conflict, causing increased stress at home, which then causes higher work- life conflict [22, 35, 36]. In some cases, high-stress work environments can influence divorce [20].

Negative Attitudes

Other studies show that counterproductive leader behaviors trickle down two levels below the immediate follower, thereby increasing workplace group deviance [37, 38]. Because leaders shape organizational context and influence follower’s perceptions and responses in their work environment, when leaders fail to set the appropriate standards, uphold and enforce regulations, and mistreat others, it shapes the climate so that others think such behaviors are appropriate, causing deteriorating effects in the unit [5, 39].

In Tepper BJ [22], the author found that counterproductive leadership is attributed to employees’ negative attitudes in the workplace. More negative attitudes were associated with those who had less job mobility and were attributed to the notion that employees felt trapped in their jobs with no alternative solutions to escape from their boss [22]. This finding is significant because U.S. Marines are unable to relocate or change jobs when they experience distress in the workplace. They must fulfill their obligation and must endure the distress of a counterproductive leader until they or their leader relocates.

Gender Differences Research suggests women service members are subjected to workplace discrimination not experienced by their male counterparts. In Brown EK [40], the authors found that women faced more gender-based scrutiny and discrimination than men, the military is inadequate in responding to military sexual trauma, and women’s needs are commonly disregarded by leadership. Women also report more workplace challenges than men including perceptions that women are unequal to men, difficulties working in a male-dominated culture [40, 41, 42] and experiencing more gender microaggressions. Women who experience gender microaggressions can show an array of emotions like anger, sadness, belittlement, frustration, and alienation [42], which can lead to isolation, incivility, decreased work performance, and low motivation in the workplace. It is also correlated with greater symptoms of depression, particularly in enlisted members compared to officers, suggesting enlisted women experience a double stigma of gender and rank [17].

Retention Issues In 2021, the nation’s military retention rate was 55% [43]. From 2005-2021, the number of voluntary separations significantly outnumbered other reasons for separating from the service [10]. In 2021, 43% of the Marine Corps’ active- duty separations were voluntary [10]. Retaining personnel is crucial to the Marine Corps’ mission because it ensures a high state of trained personnel and readiness and reduces financial costs associated with recruiting and training new personnel [44]. In 2019, the Department of War spent $2 billion on recruiting and recruit training [44]. If retention rates were higher, some of these funds could have been reallocated to other institutional needs.

The Marine Corps needs to address counterproductive leadership from a retention perspective because research shows that employees who experience burnout are three times more likely to actively search for another job compared to those who do not report burnout, and those who feel burned out are less likely to go above and beyond what is expected of them at work [24]. Additionally, the recruiting environment the worst it has been in over 50 years [1]. Seventy-one percent of young Americans are disqualified from service due to obesity, substance use, and criminal records [45]. This means that as service members transition off active duty, it has become more difficult to replace them, which negatively impacts personnel readiness.

Military Sexual Trauma

Military sexual trauma [MST] refers to “any incident of sexual harassment or sexual assault during the course of military service” [46]. This includes harassment or assault that occurs on or off a military installation, and regardless of if the perpetrator was a member of the military. Military sexual trauma remains a persistent concern for Marine Corps leaders because of its negative impacts on the biopsychosocial, physical, and occupational health of its members.

It is difficult to determine the exact prevalence of MST because of the methodical differences across studies. Additionally, much of the literature focuses on the impacts on women and lacks as much information about men. According to data collected by the Veterans Affairs (VA), 1 in 3 females and 1 in 50 male service members experience MST [47]. However, Wilson LC [46] found that the prevalence of MST is actually higher than the reports from the VA. Additionally, men are less likely to report incidents of sexual assault or harassment, so statistics for men are likely higher than reported [48].

Impacts of MST Military sexual trauma impacts individuals differently. Not every victim endures long- lasting adverse consequences; however, a substantial amount does. As a result of MST, the most reported mental health issue is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which is commonly comorbid with other mental health disorders like major depression, anxiety, eating disorders, substance use disorders, and increased suicidality [49, 50, 51]. Experiences of MST also exacerbate other pre-existing mental health conditions which can increase their severity, further complicating the issue [52]. Of importance, MST is an independent risk factor for suicidality [51]. According to Monteith LL [51], 68% of personnel experienced their first suicide ideation post-MST and 75% attempted suicide for the first time post-MST. Other physical health impacts of MST include increased risk for chronic disease like diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular risk factors [50], chronic pain [49], and impaired reproductive health and sexual functioning [52, 53, 54].

Leadership involvement in MST In the military, there are two types of reports a service member can make: restricted and unrestricted. When the report is restricted, the chain of command is notified that an incident occurred but does not receive personally identifiable information about the victim or the alleged offender, and an investigation is not triggered [55]. When the report is unrestricted, the chain of command is notified that an incident occurred and receives personally identifiable information about the victim and alleged offender, and Department of War law enforcement initiates an investigation [55]. A victim who makes an unrestricted report can receive advocacy, legal, and medical services and is also eligible for an expedited transfer to another unit [55]. Victims who make a restricted report are not eligible for an expedited transfer.

Because of the service member’s command involvement in reports of MST, many victims may be afraid to report the incident. Many are fearful of reprisal, including the possibility of additional violence, demotions, and unwanted job reassignments, as well as being ostracized, isolated from peers, losing support, and disrupting unit cohesion [56, 57, 58]. In cases when the victim remains at the same command with the alleged offender, it can compound distress, lead to complications in seeking help and safety [59], and make the victim feel even more isolated and unsupported.

Furthermore, research shows that individuals who filed unrestricted reports reported more perceived social and professional retaliation [48]. In Morral AR, et al. [60], authors found that 52% of female victims self-reported that they experienced social retaliation and professional retaliation, adverse administrative actions, or punishments for violations associated with the sexual assault. Research also shows that women report more instances of retaliation than men, and more perceived professional retaliation when the perpetrator has authority over the victim [i.e., a supervisor] [48].

Gender-Related Issues

Throughout the interview process, women participants discussed female-specific experiences endured while in service. Some leadership supported them while others did not. Many experiences described encompassed sexual harassment or assault, and some experiences encompassed different treatment by their all-male colleagues or boss. Of the six female participants, five (83%) reported enduring sexual assault or harassment, and one (16%) reported being treated differently by their colleagues or leadership. Of note, just because the other five female participants did not report being treated differently by their colleagues or boss, it does not mean it did not happen. It merely means that information was not disclosed in this interview. The following are experiences captured from this study.

The ready room was very male centric. They were not happy having a female come in and break up their little boy’s club. The Commanding Officer at the time was very supportive of me … He was really good at making sure that I was included in everything because they would try to purposely exclude me and not put me on the flight schedule because they didn’t want a girl on the trip. He’d be like, “Why isn’t she flying?” and he was like, “Nope, we’re not doing that.” [PPT2]

It was very clear that he liked me. I’m a Captain and I’m at least 30 years younger than this dude. And he walks into my office one day wearing silkies and throws his speed up on my desk, full frontal. And I’m just like, “Hey sir, I do not need to see your…” [PPT13]

What started out as a professional relationship became unprofessional [i.e., a romantic relationship]. On multiple occasions, I tried to end that relationship. But it led to him becoming so angry that he wouldn’t speak to me. And it kept me from being able to do my job. He wouldn’t give me basic information that I needed for work. And it really impacted me because he was my supervisor [PPT6].

So, this Major sent my friend a dick pic and she told me about it. She showed me the messages and what not and I asked her what she wanted to do and she said, “Will you report it?” So, I reported it to the SAPR UVA (Sexual Assault Prevention Representative Uniformed Victim Advocate) multiple times thinking I was making a report for my friend. So, the third time I talked about it I was like, “Well, I guess I’ll go tell the media.” She told my Commanding Officer who wrote me a counseling about how I blackmailed the Navy and then I was in a command investigation for substandard performance of duty while nobody looked into this Major or anything. … I was removed from flight school. … The report of substandard performance was substantiated and that I should be kicked out of the Marine Corps. And then also, I love this, the command investigation that I finally got going said that the Major did not send those photos and it was all unsubstantiated, but the Colonel who made the investigation failed to even include the pictures, the text messages, or anything really about the case, and just made it an investigation into me and the other girl. … We were being administratively separated from 2021 to 2023. So, during that time I was not allowed to work. My Commanding Officer ordered people not to talk to me. I was very ostracized. My Commanding Officer would ask me if I’m mentally retarded. Nobody could speak to me without multiple higher ups talking to me. I was not allowed computer access. [PPT7].

Gender-Related Experiences

In this study, all female participants described experiencing sexual harassment or assault or being treated differently by their male colleagues or boss. Only one male participant brought up being discriminated against for his gender, ethnicity, and perceived personality (i.e. toxic masculinity). For all participants, these topics were discussed as part of their negative experiences working for counterproductive leaders which negatively impacted their physical and mental health, ability to perform their job, and attitude towards the service.

The female-specific findings illustrate the challenges women service members face that most of their male counterparts do not. In a service where 10% are women [10], these challenges further exacerbate women’s experiences of not feeling valued, being isolated, and feeling alone and unsupported. In turn, women feel more disconnected which impacts their work performance and desire to continue serving. Leaders should be aware of the experiences women service members face that most male service members do not so they can provide support and guidance where and when appropriately.

Implications for Clinical Practice in the Military

Working in the Marine Corps is tough enough due to the demands of the service, so working for a counterproductive leader only makes it tougher. When experiencing symptoms of anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, low motivation, and suicidal ideations, Marines have multiple options to get help. First, Marines can seek medical care through their primary care provider. They can get medical care from a mental health provider on base or get a referral to an off-base provider. However, though medical care is free for active- duty service members, these services often go underutilized. One study cited that only 31.7% of total force active-duty service members diagnosed with PTSD or depression were receiving medical care [61]. This number is alarming because approximately 47.5% of total force active-duty service members are diagnosed with at least one mental health disorder [62]. One study conducted by Military Health System [62] found that from 2019-2023, the most common mental health diagnoses were adjustment disorders (29%), anxiety disorders (20%), depressive disorders (17%), PTSD (9%), and alcohol-related disorders (7%). These rates raise concern because medical care for service members is free. The reasons why service members do not seek medical care are vast, but many negate their health because they are overworked and have difficulty finding time for medical care.

Additionally, in some occupational specialties, seeking mental health services is frowned upon and has the potential to negatively impact a Marines’ career. For example, in some occupational specialties like aviation, pilots are “grounded” which means they are unable to fly (i.e., perform their job) if they seek mental health services. This not only has a negative impact on their career, but it also highlights them to their command and colleagues and has a negative effect on unit cohesion and mission accomplishment. Because of this, many pilots suffer in silence and do not seek services until much later in their career, after they have left the service, or retired.

To help Marines overcome mental health issues associated with counterproductive leadership, interventions from behavioral therapies like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), acceptance and commitment therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), and motivational interviewing can be used to help service members process their experiences, learn adaptive coping skills, and manage their stress. For more severe cases involving historical exposure to trauma in which exposure to counterproductive leadership is exacerbating symptoms, trauma-related interventions from cognitive processing therapy, trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, and accelerated resolution therapy can be used to help service members work through their traumatic memories while overcoming issues associated with counterproductive leadership behaviors.

Military Implications

One key aspect of being a great leader is emotional intelligence, which is the ability of leaders to recognize, motivate and manage their own emotions and the ones of the people they lead [63]. The level of emotional intelligence determines one’s potential to learn skills in self-awareness, motivation, self-control, empathy, and establishing good interpersonal relations [63], all skills indicative of great leaders.

To decrease the predominance of counterproductive leadership, professional military education (PME) curriculum should be revised to include courses and workshops aimed at increasing emotional intelligence skills. Leaders with a higher level of emotional intelligence are more likely to cope with high-stress situations, make better decisions for the group, and are overall less likely to engage in counterproductive leadership behaviors. At all ranks, PME is required to advance to the next rank. Currently, officer and enlisted PME leadership courses incorporate group discussions about the importance of good leadership but do not focus on the behaviors or how to refine skills to be a better leader. Interventions from behavioral therapies like CBT and DBT can be used to help increase emotional intelligence skills, such as managing stress, regulating emotions, building self-awareness, and increasing communication and interpersonal skills. Thus, increasing emotional intelligence skills in leaders will decrease symptoms of employee anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts and ideations, while increasing employee sense of self-worth, self-efficacy, and work performance.

Of note, the researcher is not suggesting that counterproductive leadership is a mental health disorder. The researcher is merely acknowledging how psychotherapy interventions can be incorporated into leadership development curriculum to decrease counterproductive leadership behaviors. For example, conducting the DBT intervention of behavior chain analysis can help leaders understand why they behaved in a certain way in response to a situation or stressor. Likewise, CBT assertiveness training can help teach leaders effective communication skills rather than passive or aggressive communication, which will help build relationships and increase work performance.