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Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access Research Article 30 min read

Green Synthesis of Nano-Semiconductor Photocatalysts and their Effectivity for Photo-Oxidation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater: A Review Study

Zaid H Jabbar*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2574-187X  10.23880/nnoa-16000272  Received: October 13, 2023  Published: November 14, 2023
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Keywords
Green Synthesis F Nps Semiconductor Photocatalysis Organic Oxidation Wastewater Treatment
Abstract

In recent years, green synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) has been regarded as preferable and acceptable than chemical approaches, particularly when it applies to pollution control and wastewater treatment. The green synthesis approaches were effectively employed to prepare a huge number of semiconductors photocatalysts, such as TiO2, WO3, SnO2, CeO2, ZnO, Bi2O3, Ag, Na2SeO3, ZnCr2O4, Nb2O5, and so on. Photocatalytic degradation is an advanced water treatment technology that has great potential for the photo-oxidation of various organic pollutants and various types of nano-semiconductors photocatalysts. Plant waste has the potential to be more useful in the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles (NPs) due to their availability, high biodiversity, eco-friendliness, and low cost. This review focuses on the employing of plant extracts in the synthesis of nano-photocatalysts as a cost-effective approach. Our study involves reviewing a huge number of impactful studies that deal with the photooxidation of organic pollutants under light radiation. It was concluded that the utilization of waste plants in the green synthesis of nano-photocatalysts is a low-cost technology, environmentally friendly, and can produce nanoparticles with outstanding efficiency for water pollution remediation. This study encourages the development of new technologies based on reusing plant waste in the synthesis of economic photocatalysts for environmental applications.

Ayah A Okab1#, Zaid H Jabbar2*, Bassim H Graimed3 and Abeer I Alwared3

#These authors have contributed equally to this work and share the first authorship.

Introduction

A few days ago, organic pollutants revealed a greater threat to human health and the environment due to the potential contamination of marine life and ecosystems via phenols, antibiotics, pesticides, and dyes [1, 2]. These pollutants exhibit a strong toxic effect and are difficult to decompose in nature [3, 4, 5]. Thus, it is crucial to develop robust technology to effectively eradicate organic contaminants. As a prominent solution, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are a set of efficient chemical treatment techniques that can completely oxidize recalcitrant organic materials in wastewater into simple products [6]. AOPs (see Fig. 1) involve the production of powerful and non-selective radical species that can break down refractory organic pollutants in efficient degradation pathways [7, 8, 9, 10].

Nowadays, a huge number of hazardous organic pollutants (HOPs), like organic dyes [11, 12], pesticides [13], phenols [14], antibiotics [14, 15, 16], detergents [17], drugs [18], biphenyls [19], plasticizers [20], and others, are discharged into water and treated by efficient treatment technologies. Among them, heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation technology is an advanced oxidation process (AOPs), which has received more attention due to its advantages, such as low energy consumption, mild reaction conditions, and a broad range of applications [21, 22]. Under light illumination, it has been shown to be more efficient in degrading HOPs into low-toxic and biodegradable products, which can then be completely mineralized into CO2 and H2O [23, 24] (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Classification of AOPs that can be employed for oxidation of different organic pollutants [25].
Click to enlarge
Figure 1: Classification of AOPs that can be employed for oxidation of different organic pollutants [25].

A huge number of metal oxides, such as TiO2, WO3, SnO2, CeO2, ZnO, Bi2O3, Ag-based photocatalysts, Nb2O5, and so on, were employed as semiconductor photocatalysts for the degradation of organic pollutants under UV and visible light sources [26, 27, 28]. Several techniques and approaches have been implemented to synthesize the metal oxides, including sol gel [29], liquid phase [30], chemical vapor deposition [31], colloidal [32, 33], electrodeposition [34], hydrothermal method, co-precipitation, solvothermal, self- assembly, and so on [35]. The green synthesis technologies based on bio-resources have been proven to be more effective, environmentally friendly, and less dangerous than other methods [36, 37, 38, 39]. These methods were developed to produce a variety of metal oxide nanoparticles derived from biocompatible materials such as microorganisms (bacteria, algae, and fungi) and plant extracts (steam, seed, leaf, fruit, and flower) [40, 41].

Recently, the synthesis of nanoparticles from plant extracts has received increased attention due to their activity and economics. Hence, many plant species were investigated for the preparation of nanoparticles in various shapes and sizes. The researchers gave priority to fabricating plant- mediated NPs because dealing with plant parts is easier and more practical than dealing with microorganisms (bacteria, algae, and fungi). Moreover, the utilized microorganisms require a significant amount of time to cultivate fungus or bacterial cultures to be ready for practical use. On the other hand, plant-mediated NPs exhibited many other advantages, like their availability, high biodiversity, eco-friendliness, and low cost [42]. This review highlights the recent technologies employed to fabricate metal-oxide nanoparticles using different plant parts. Moreover, this study concentrates on the application of green synthesized NPs in the photocatalytic oxidation of organic pollutants in wastewater. This study encourages the development of new technologies based on reusing plant waste in the synthesis of economic photocatalysts for environmental applications.

Fundamentals of Photocatalytic Reactions

The photocatalysis process “has been proven to be promising and sustainable for addressing the problems related to environmental pollution and the energy crisis by harvesting clean or renewable solar energy [43]. The photocatalysis process was commonly implemented to degrade the organic pollutants under visible-light illumination and ambient conditions to obtain a desirable mineralization process [44]. In the photocatalysis process, the reaction rate can be accelerated by using semiconductor photocatalysts to absorb light of the appropriate frequency [45]. Based on the phases of catalysts and reactants, the photocatalysis reaction may be heterogeneous or homogenous. It is identified as a homogeneous system if the catalyst and the reactant are in the same phase, while it is identified as a heterogeneous reaction if the catalyst and the reactant are in a different phase [46].

The photodegradation mechanism involves four main steps, including the absorption of light energy, excitation of electrons, separation of photo-carriers, and photocatalytic reaction [47, 48, 49]. By irradiating the photoreactor system with a light source (Eq. 2.1), the photocatalyst absorbs the photon energy equivalent to the frequency of its band gap energy (Eg), exciting the electrons (e−) from the valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB), producing pairs of electrons and holes in the CB and VB, respectively [50, 51]. The excited photo-carriers participate in a series of redox reactions to create a sufficient number of active radials.

Specifically, water molecules and/or hydroxyl ions can be reacted with splitter holes in the VB to generate hydroxyl radicals (•OH), as depicted in Eqs. 2.2 and 2.3. In addition, the superoxide radicals (•O2−) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be obtained via a series of oxidation reactions between the photoexcited electrons of CB and dissolved oxygen (Eqs. 2.4 and 2.5), which convert to •OH radicals as illustrated in Eqs. 2.6 and 2.7 [52, 53]. Subsequently (Eq. 2.8), the organic pollutants like dyes and antibiotics will be broken down by these ROS, converting them into simple and less harmful intermediates [54, 55]. Unfortunately, the photoreaction can be hampered by reintegrating between the electrons and holes (Eq. 2.9), resulting in an undesirable treatment process [56, 57]. Thus, it is important to overcome this deactivation action by using efficient modification technologies that will be clarified in the next sections” [58, 59, 60] (Figure 2).

( ) Photocatalyst Light Energy e h hν − + + → + (1)

$$ \mathrm {h} ^ {+} (\mathrm {V B}) + \mathrm {H} _ {2} \mathrm {O} \rightarrow \dot {\mathrm {O}} \mathrm {H} + \mathrm {H} ^ {+} (2) $$ $$ \mathrm {h} ^ {+} (\mathrm {V B}) + \mathrm {O H} \rightarrow \dot {\mathrm {O H}} \tag {3} $$ ( ) 2 2 e CBof PC O O − − + → (4) $$ \mathrm {O} _ {2} + 2 \mathrm {H} ^ {+} + 2 \mathrm {e} ^ {-} (C B) \rightarrow \mathrm {H} _ {2} \mathrm {O} _ {2} (5) $$ $$ \dot {\mathrm {O}} _ {2} ^ {-} + 2 \mathrm {H} _ {2} \mathrm {O} _ {2} \mathrm {H} \dot {\mathrm {O}} + 2 \mathrm {H} \dot {\mathrm {O}} + \mathrm {O} _ {2} + \mathrm {H} _ {2} \mathrm {O} _ {2} + \dot {\mathrm {O}} _ {2} ^ {-} \rightarrow \dot {\mathrm {O}} \mathrm {H} \tag {6} $$ $$ \mathrm {H} _ {2} \mathrm {O} _ {2} \mathrm {o r} \dot {\mathrm {O}} _ {2} ^ {-} + \mathrm {e} ^ {-} \rightarrow \dot {\mathrm {O}} \mathrm {H} \tag {7} $$ ( ) 2 2 2 2 ROS OH,h ,H O organic CO H O+intermediates + + → +  (8) e h deactivated reaction hν − + + → + (9)

Figure 2: Schematic illustration depicting the photocatalytic mechanism under simulated sunlight irradiation [61].
Click to enlarge
Figure 2: Schematic illustration depicting the photocatalytic mechanism under simulated sunlight irradiation [61].

Green Synthesis of Single Nano-Semi conductors

The green pathway refers to these methods that are employed to fabricate NP, which is characterized by being risk-free, less hazardous, environmentally friendly, and mostly employing renewable energy sources. In these technologies, plants and microorganisms are utilized as active bio-components in green synthesis, resulting in low energy consumption and environmentally friendly solvents, with water serving as the primary solvent. Besides, the NPs could be created by utilizing bioactive substances that serve as reducing and capping agents. The bioactive components are primarily sourced from various plant parts, including leaves, flowers, seeds, roots, and vegetable waste. Accordingly, bioactive phytochemicals are essential for the reduction of metal ions in the green synthesis of NPs. Generally, a simple method is employed for the manufacture of different kinds of metal nanoparticles mediated by plant extracts [62, 63].

In the green synthesis approach, a known quantity of plant parts was washed three or four times with tap water and air-dried at room temperature. Then, the cleaned plant parts are cut into pieces (manually or with an electric grinder) and weighed before being added to 100 mL of distilled water at a high temperature for 20 min. After that, the extract is allowed to cool down to room temperature. To obtain a clear solution, the extract was filtered by Whatman filter paper No. 1 and stored at 0 to 4 °C. The filtrated extract was used as a reducing agent during the nanoparticle synthesis process [64]. The deionized water is used to create an aqueous solution of metal precursors in varied concentrations. After that, the produced aqueous plant extract mixes in a different ratio with the obtained solution. The mixture was then stirred and heated to 80 °C. Bio-reduction can be detected by changing the solution color to dark brown. The produced nanoparticles can be centrifuged before being cleaned with deionized water and dried at room temperature. The final precipitate was annealed at high temperatures in a hot air oven for several hours before being cooled and collected for the next characterization step [64, 65, 66]. Sometimes, NaOH solution may be added to the mixture (metal precursors and plant extract) as an accelerator to increase the reducing potential and the rate of the reaction [67].

For instance [68], jujube fruit extract was used to prepare high-quality zinc oxide nanoparticles (NPs) using a green method. Moreover, ZnO NPs were fabricated using zinc nitride (Zn(NO3)2.6H2O) as a zinc precursor, and the jujube fruit aqueous extract was employed as an effective reducing agent and stabilizer. The ZnO NPs were applied for the degradation of two organic dyes (methylene blue (MB) and eriochrome black-T (ECBT)). The ZnO photocatalyst showed high photocatalytic activity, which was about 92% and 86% after 5 h of light radiation for MB and ECBT dyes, respectively. Moreover, the NPs demonstrated stable photocatalytic activity after sequential degradation experiments.

In another work [71], green, facial, environmentally friendly, and simple biological procedure was used for the fabrication of selenium nanorods (Se-NRs) by adding ascorbic acid and gum Arabic (GA) to the aqueous solution of selenium precursor sodium selenite salt (Na2SeO3) (see Fig. 3). Briefly, ascorbic acid was used to reduce Na2SeO3 and synthesize Se nanorods, while gum Arabic was added as a stabilizing agent to prevent the undesired growth of Se-NRs and stimulate the force driver to control the particle size and improve the stability within the solution. The obtained Se-NRs displayed high stability and negative charge, as well as the shape of nanorods and a crystalline nature with an average size of about 24 nm. The photocatalytic performance of the obtained Se-NRs was evaluated in the elimination of RhB dye under UV light, which exhibited a degradation efficiency of about 85% within 120 min.

In another work, SnO2 nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by using Camellia sinensis leaf extract as a green method. In the synthesis procedure, three different extract concentrations (1, 2, and 4%) were utilized. The characterization technologies revealed that 4% SnO2 NPs were different in average sizes and band gaps compared with the bulk sample. This result is attributed to the action of extracting molecules as a stabilizing agent. Moreover, the 4%SnO2 NPs achieved a high degradation efficiency of MO (81%), and a total degradation of 100% of organic dyes, such as MB and Rd-B, after 180 min of UV-light radiation [69].

Moreover [70], silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) were prepared using jujube core extract as a green, eco- friendly, facile, cost-effective, and rapid method. The photodegradation ability of Ag NPs was examined against cationic rhodamine B (RhB) and anionic eriochrome black T (EBT) pollutants under UV and visible light irradiations. The structural characterization of jujube core extract concluded that the biological activity of the extract can be attributed to its content of phenolic acids. The phenolic acids can stabilize and reduce the silver ions to silver nanoparticles. The photocatalytic experiments manifested that the degradation efficiencies were about 90.9% for RhB and 84.7% for EBT under UV irradiation and 74.7% for RhB and 68.2% for EBT under visible light irradiation within 80 min. The high degradation activity of Ag NPs against cationic dye compared with anionic dye could be attributed to the positive charge and oxygen group in the molecular structure of RhB.

Figure 3: Green synthesis of Selenium Nanorods (Se-NRs).
Click to enlarge
Figure 3: Green synthesis of Selenium Nanorods (Se-NRs).

In an interesting study [72], Cu-doped ZnO NPs were synthesized via bioreductant, eco-friendly, and Synedrium grantiid leaf extracts. Various concentrations of Cu were doped on ZnO NPs (1 to 9 wt%). The photocatalytic activity of the fabricated nanomaterial was studied against some organic pollutants like MB, Indigo Carmine (IC), and RhB under UV light. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis confirmed the existence of binding energies between the host material and dopant ions. Moreover, when doping content increases, the band gap values also increase, negatively affecting the photocatalytic activity. Moreover, 3% and 5% Cu-doped samples exhibited enhanced degradation efficiency against the organic dyes. More impactful studies can be summarized in Table 1 (Figure 3).

No.plant NamePart of
plant		NPs typeNPs MorphologyNPs Size
(nm)		Organic pollutantsReferences
1fenugreek
(Trigonella
foenum-graecum)		aqueous
extract		Au NPsspherical204-nitrophenol[73]
2Terminalia
chebula (T.
chebula)		fruitAg NPsface centered
cubic geometry
oriented in (1 1 1)
plane		Diameter
25		methylene blue[74]
3Plectranthus
amboinicus		leafZnO NPsRod shape88methyl red (MR)[75]
4Punica granatumfruit juicegold and silver
NPs		sphericalGNPs is 18
SNPs is 36		Methylene Blue (MB),
Methyl Orange (MO) and
Eosin Y (EY)		[76]
5Sterculia
acuminate (S.
acuminata)		fruitAuNPsspherical9.37 to
38.12		4-nitrophenol (4-NP),
methylene blue (MB),
methyl orange (MO) and
direct blue 24 (DB24)		[77]
6Moringa oleiferaflowerPdNPs----100P-nitrophenol (PNP) and
methylene blue dye.		[78]
7Carissa edulis (C.
edulis)		ZnO NPsflower shaped50–55Congo red[79]
8Zanthoxylum
armatum		leavesAg NPscrystallinerange from
15 to 50		Safranine O, Methyl
red, Methyl orange and
Methylene blue		[80]
9Cicer arietinumleavesAg NPsspherical88.8Congo red, 4-nitrophenol,
and methylene blue.		[66]
10Hyphaene
thebaica		fruitAg NPsspherical204-nitrophenol (4-NP) and
Congo red dyes (CR),		[81]
11Guiera
senegalensis		leavesAg NPsspherical50Congo red dye (CR) and
4-nitrophenol (4-NP).		[82]
12Catunaregum
spinosa (C.
spinosa)		root barkAg NPsspherically33±2Amaranth dye[83]
13Anacardium
occidentale		leafα-Fe O
2 3		nanocrystalsLess than
50		methyl red and eosin
yellowish		[84]
14Camellia japonicaleafAg-NPssphericalaround 12
to 25		nitrobenzene and EY dye[85]
15Lagerstroemia
speciosa		leafAu NPsspherical41–91methylene blue, methyl
orange, bromophenol blue,
bromocresol green, and
4-nitrophenol		[86]

16 Cuminum cyminum seeds Ag NPs spherical 16 ± 2

17 Tamarindus indica leaves TiO2 spherical 20-40 Titan yellow dye [88]

18 Trigonella foenumgraecum seed Fe NPs --- 11 methyl orange dye degradation [89]

19 Mangifera indica flower Ag NPs Less than 51 4-nitrophenol and azo bond in dye molecules [90]

quasi-spherical, spherical, ellipsoidal, hexagonal and irregular

20 Allium ampeloprasum leaf Ag NPs

triangular, pentagonal, hexagonal and spherical

21 Alcea rosea leaf Au NPs

Sal deoiled seed cake (DOC), a plant-based waste as reducing capping agent

22 Seed Ag NPs polygonal 30–150

23 Hibiscus Rosa sinensis leaf ZnCr2O4/ZnCrO4 crystalline 70-14 [94]

24 corn-cob waste CC-Ag NPs CC- AuNPs Spherical multiple shapes 2 to 28 5 to 50 o-, m-, p-nitrophenols, , Rhodamine 6G, and Eosin Y. [95]

25 Terminalia bellerica kernel Ag NPs ---- Less than 48

26 Clitoria ternatea flower SnO2 spherical 7 Rhodamine B (RhB) [96]

27 Ceratonia siliqua ---- Fe3O4-cellulose- copper nanocomposite spherical 25

the epicarp (cover) and endocarp (seeds)

28 jumbo Muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia)

29 Cydonia oblonga NiO-NPs cubic shape dimension (74.5 nm) Rhodamine B (RB) dye [29]

30 Camellia sinensis SnO2 quasi-spherical 6.91, 5.2, and 4.7

31 Citrus reticulata blanco peel Ag NPs spherical Less than 27 malachite green dye [65]

32 Melia azedarach Leaf Cu-ZnO irregularly shaped particles chlorpyriphos pesticide [99]

Methylene blue (MB), methyl red (MR), rhodamine-B (Rh-B) and 4enitrophenol (4eNP).

[87]

4-nitrophenol to 4 aminophenol, DPPH

  • (2,2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrzyl) and ABTS+
  • (2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6- sulphonic acid)) radicals.

between 2 and 43 [91]

Apr-95 4-nitrophenol pollutant [92]

namely Methyl orange, Congo red, Methylene blue, Eriochrome black T, and Evans blue.

[93]

4-nitrophenol, methylene blue, eosin yellow and methyl orange.

[67]

4- nitrophenol, 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, methyl orange and potassium ferricyanide.

[97]

GCoO-NPs ------- -------- AB-74 dye [98]

dyes Methylene Blue (MB), Methyl Orange (MO), and Rhodamine B (Rd-B)

[69]

  • 33
  • Canna indica L.
  • Flowers
  • ZnO crystallite
  • 27.82 methylene blue
  • [100]
  • 34
  • Solanum torvum (Turkey Berry)
  • Fruit
  • Au NPs spherical
  • 9–14
  • Methylene Blue dye
  • [101]
  • 35
  • Vernonia amygdalina
  • Leaf α-Fe2O3 resemble ginger
  • ---methyl orange (MO) and methylene blue (MB) dyes
  • [102]
  • 4-nitrophenol (4-NP),
  • 2-nitrophenol (2-NP), and azo dyes included
  • Rhodamine B (RB), Congo red (CR), and Methyl orange
  • (MO).
  • 36
  • Dodonaea viscosa plant species
  • Ag NPs
  • ---
  • 60
  • 37
  • Eucalyptus globulus outer fruit shell
  • Ag NP
  • ----
  • -----
  • Methyl orange, methyl red and congo red
  • [104]

Table 2: Examples of NP synthesis with plant assisted and their performance in photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants.

Green Synthesis Heterojunction Photo catalyst

Photocatalytic processes by nanomaterials can be considered one of the most creative techniques because of their ability and flexibility for manipulation to enhance their activity. Coupling two nano-semiconductors in one system has been demonstrated to be one of the most efficient ways to boost the photocatalytic capacity [105]. The enhancement by heterojunction construction is coming by overcoming the drawbacks of single photocatalysts like fast recombination of photo‐generated electron‐hole pairs, limited electron mobility, restricted optical absorption, or insufficient active sites [106]. According to the electron transfer pathway between the contributed nanomaterials in one heterojunction, the green synthesis heterojunction has many types, like nanoparticle/semiconductor heterostructure, plasmonic heterojunction, etc.

For example, a ternary Ag/RGO/Fe3O4 heterogenous catalyst was biosynthesized using Lotus garcinii leaf extract. The plant extract was used as an agent for the reduction and stabilization of silver ions from the precursor’s solution (AgNO3) to silver NPs on the RGO/Fe3O4 nanocomposite. The photocatalytic performance of the prepared nanocomposite was assessed using many organic pollutants, including 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), CR, and RhB. The green synthesis of NPs can greatly reduce their adverse environmental effects. Moreover, RGO acted as a matrix in the heterojunction, preventing the accumulation of NPs, and was magnetized to facilitate the separation of nanocomposite from the reaction solution. The Ag/RGO/Fe3O4 heterojunction present excellent photocatalytic efficiency in 180 min [107].

Figure 4: The band structures and photodegradation mechanisms of the Ag/AgCl@TiO2 heterostructure under sunlight.
Click to enlarge
Figure 4: The band structures and photodegradation mechanisms of the Ag/AgCl@TiO2 heterostructure under sunlight.

In another study [108], mangrove plant Avicennia marina aqueous leaf extract was used in the facile biosynthesis of Ag/AgCl@TiO2 plasmonic heterojunction. The extract was applied as a reducing and stabilizing agent as well as a chlorine source to synthesize Ag/AgCl from AgNO3 precursors. The characterization results revealed successfully synthesized Ag/AgCl@TiO2 nanocomposite with nanosized particles (~35 nm), high specific surface area (31.94 m2/g), and improved bandgap energy (1.73 eV). The photocatalytic activity of the prepared Ag/AgCl@TiO2 was examined against the degradation of eosin Y dye under sunlight radiation. The photocatalytic activity indicated high removal efficiency (99.74% for 50 ppm dye concentration, 50 mg/100 mL catalyst dose, and 4 pH at 35°C) after one hour of sunlight radiation. This high performance was attributed to the surface plasmon resonance and the effective charge separation due to the heterostructure developed among Ag, AgCl, and TiO2, as shown in Figure 4.

Conclusion

A few days ago, organic pollutants revealed a greater threat to human health and the environment due to the potential contamination of marine life and ecosystems. A huge number of metal oxides, such as TiO2, WO3, SnO2, CeO2, ZnO, Bi2O3, Ag-based photocatalysts, Nb2O5, and so on, were employed as semiconductor photocatalysts for the degradation of organic pollutants under UV and visible light sources. This review introduced valuable information about the fabrication of nanoparticles via green synthesis approaches. These methods demonstrated promise as technologies due to being risk-free, less hazardous, environmentally friendly, and mostly employing renewable energy sources. The synthesized nanoparticles revealed robust photocatalytic activity for the degradation of different organic pollutants under UV and visible light sources. This study discussed recent advances and the sustainable fabrication approach to developing stable nanoparticles. Moreover, the preparation of green heterojunctions and their application in wastewater treatment were also highlighted.

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@article{zaid2023,
  title   = {Green Synthesis of Nano-Semiconductor Photocatalysts and their
Effectivity for Photo-Oxidation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater:
A Review Study},
  author  = {Zaid H Jabbar},
  journal = {Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access},
  year    = {2023},
  volume  = {8},
  number  = {4},
  doi     = {10.23880/nnoa-16000272}
}
Zaid H Jabbar (2023). Green Synthesis of Nano-Semiconductor Photocatalysts and their
Effectivity for Photo-Oxidation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater:
A Review Study. Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.23880/nnoa-16000272
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Green Synthesis of Nano-Semiconductor Photocatalysts and their
Effectivity for Photo-Oxidation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater:
A Review Study
AU  - Zaid H Jabbar
JO  - Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access
PY  - 2023
VL  - 8
IS  - 4
DO  - 10.23880/nnoa-16000272
ER  -