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International Journal of Oceanography & Aquaculture Research Article 48 min read

Evaluation of Heavy Metal Pollutants of Water on Fish Health and its Impact on Human Health

Aly MYM*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2577-4050  10.23880/ijoac-16000259  Received: June 02, 2023  Published: September 19, 2023
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Keywords
Fish Pollutants Heavy Metals Health Histopathological
Abstract

This review provides a summary of the toxic effects of heavy metals on fish. In the aquatic environment, these metals are important pollutants and are found in all ecosystems and are found in large quantities. Some heavy metals such as Cadmium, iron, copper, zinc and lead have the advantage of accumulating in tissues and poisoning fish. These minerals can effectively affect biological processes, fish reproduction, impair the immune system, and cause pathological changes. Therefore, heavy metals play an important role as a vital predictor of pollutants affecting the health and life of fish environments. These minerals cause organ damage even at low levels of exposure, so they have recently been classified as carcinogens. For all the above-mentioned reasons, this review has been written to contribute to the role of heavy metals in the environment, the toxic mechanism, the toxic effects on fish and the health of the human consumption of fish. Also, this article reviews the Histopathological change and biomarkers when exposed to heavy metal contamination.

Introduction

Heavy metals are highly persistent and toxic in trace amounts, and can cause severe oxidative stress in aquatic organisms. Hence, these pollutants are very important in terms of environmental toxins. As it is not subjected to bacterial degradation, and therefore remains permanent in the aquatic environment, it may have devastating effects on the ecological balance [1]. Heavy metal contamination of water creates a serious problem due to the dumping of household and industrial waste into the water. They reach a dangerous level and pose a threat to the health of aquatic organisms, as well as humans. It is important to know the concentration of toxic metals in fish to avoid these problems [2]. Heavy metals are naturally found in the deep layers of the earth and are found in sediments of high concentrations. In addition, geological weather factors and human emissions from crude oil mines may lead to increased concentrations of heavy metals in the aquatic environment [3]. Aquatic animals have the ability to accumulate heavy metals in their tissues through absorption through the layer of gills, liver and intestine to levels higher than those in the environment. Cadmium, mercury and lead have no known essential role in living organisms; however, they exhibit significant toxicity at low exposure levels and are considered fundamental threats to all life forms, especially human health. The biological accumulation of toxic substances depends on the availability and persistence of pollution in water and food, and their physical and chemical properties. Some studies have shown that the degree of accumulation of these minerals in fish depends on the types of minerals, fish species, and tissues, respectively [4, 5]. In aqueous environments, heavy metals produce their pollutants from direct precipitation from the atmosphere, or through the disposal of agricultural and industrial wastes, as well as through the plants where sewage wastes are treated [6]. Heavy metals accumulate in the aquatic environment, then affect fish and build up in their bodies. Marine water fish are less susceptible to heavy metals than freshwater fish. This is because freshwater fish tend to gain water and lose salt, unlike marine water fish, which tend to lose water and gain salt. Heavy metals enter the body of the fish through a process known as ion exchange by the gills and skin, or adsorption by fish tissues. Metal accumulation in different parts of the body depends on many factors such as water solubility, feeding behavior, environment, and physiology including species, age, size, reproductive status, fish health, bioavailability and different habitats [7].

The Main Sources of Water in Egypt

River Nile

It is estimated that 85 % of the water flowing from the Aswan High Dam is used for irrigation, and the remaining 15 % is used in industry, water supply, hydropower and fisheries. Adopting new irrigation techniques through sprinkler and drip irrigation will reduce the total volume of agricultural wastewater significantly [8].

Groundwater

Groundwater is found within the sandstone aquifer. They occur at great depths and the aquifer is generally non- renewable. Therefore, the use of this water depends on the costs of pumping and its depletion against the potential economic return in the long run [9].

Rain Water

It cannot be relied upon for expanded agricultural production or other uses, due to its spatial and temporal fluctuation.

Others Water Resources

This includes agricultural drainage water, treated wastewater, cloud seeding and seawater desalination. Every resource has its limits on usage. These restrictions relate to quantity, quality, location, time, and cost of use [10]. This is shown in (Table 1) and (Figure 1).

199020002025
Nile water55.557.557.5
In the desert2.65.16.3
Reuse of agricultural drainage water5.278
Treated sewage water0.21.12.4
Management and saving wasted water-1-
Total63.571.774.2

Table 1: Shows the water resources in Egypt (billion / m3) between the last years from 1990 to 2025 [11,12].

Figure 1: Water rates and resources in Egypt (billion/ m3) (Ministry of water resources and irrigation, MWRI) [13].
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Figure 1: Water rates and resources in Egypt (billion/ m3) (Ministry of water resources and irrigation, MWRI) [13].

Water Pollution

Water pollution is defined as human direct and indirect interference with various substances in the water environment, which leads to harm to human public health, deterioration of fish activities, and damage to water components. Pollution also occurs from human activities that supply some foreign substances in fresh water or sea water [14]. Agricultural wastewater, industrial effluents, and municipal wastewater are disposed of recklessly into the Nile, gradually making its waters unfit for human consumption. There are many areas in Cairo that empty into the Nile without treating the water. Agricultural drainage water contains pesticide and herbicide contaminants. Industrial effluents are often highly toxic, and contain heavy metals that can combine with suspended solids in household wastewater to form slurries. This water entering the river makes it very polluted in the future [15].

Water pollution with heavy metals

Identification of heavy metals

Heavy metals are defined as mineral elements with a relatively high density compared to water, and human exposure to them has increased dramatically as a result of the massive increase in their use in many industrial, agricultural and technological applications [16]. The sources of heavy metals are many in different environments, including the industrial and agricultural environment, liquid waste and air sources [17]. Heavy metals are considered pollutants due to their toxicity, persistence in the environment, and their ability to integrate and bioaccumulation within food chains [18]. Heavy metals can accumulate in freshwater and marine systems which pose a potential health concern for consumers and may lead to financial losses if concentrations in the water exceed Maximum Pollutant Levels (MCL).

Moreover, the uptake of heavy metal contaminants may lead to concentrations in fish or edible plant tissues that exceed standards, contributing to economic losses, environmental degradation and negative impacts on human health [19].

Classification of heavy metals

Essential heavy metals Copper, chromium, zinc, nickel, cobalt and iron are essential minerals required for all vital processes within the body at an ideal level. If it exceeds the permissible limits it causes various diseases and high level toxicity [20]. Non-essential heavy metals These have no biological roles and are also called xenobiotics. When it increases in concentrations, it will cause toxoplasmosis effects in the tissues. They include aluminum, mercury, lead, cadmium, and others. [21].

Source of heavy metals in water

Heavy metals in surface waters such as rivers and lakes are influenced by soil type and water velocity. So metals on the surface of the soil are derailed and end up in reservoirs and wastewater. Rainwater is polluted as it passes through the atmosphere. Water sources are polluted as various industrial liquid wastes flow into them. This industrial and liquid agricultural waste contains many heavy metals, as mentioned in Table 2. Groundwater is polluted from landfills, from deep wells, and from industrial waste [22].

MetalSources
FePigments and paints; fuel; refineries; textile.
Mn& ZnBatteries and electrical; pigments and paints; alloys and solders; pesticides; glass; fertilizers; refiners; fuel.
PbBatteries and electrical; pigments and paints; alloys and solders; pesticides; glass; fertilizer; refiners; fuel; plastic.
CdBatteries electrical; pigments and paints; alloys and solids; fertilizers.
NiElectrical; pigments and paints; alloys and solids; fuel; catalysts; fertilizers.
CuBatteries and electrical; pigments and paints; alloys and solid; fuel; pesticides.
CrPigments; fertilizers; textile.

Table 2: Groundwater is polluted from landfills, from deep wells, and from industrial waste [22].

Heavy metals are natural elements found in the Earth’s crust. Pollution with these metals occurs as a result of the activities embodied in the following Mining and industrial production and the use of minerals containing chemical compounds that are used for agricultural and domestic purposes. These sources have been reported by several researchers. The potential sources of environmental pollution with heavy metals are shown in Figures 2 & 3. The toxic properties of heavy metals are characterized by many causes including persistence of the metal in the soil and bioaccumulation [24]. Heavy metals in the aquatic ecosystem are a serious pollutant of global concern due to their high bioaccumulation and severity of toxicity, which cause severe damage to organisms present in the aquatic environment. Contamination of riverine ecosystems with heavy metals has become a major problem and is a natural result of industrial growth and other man-made activities [25]. Heavy metals enter rivers and lakes from natural and human sources through erosion, leaching, and rock weathering [26]. New techniques have been developed to treat heavy metals present in wastewater in order to achieve a reduction in the harmful effects of heavy metals on the ecosystem [27].

Figure 2: Different sources of heavy metals in surface waters [28].
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Figure 2: Different sources of heavy metals in surface waters [28].
Figure 3: A schematic diagram showing the source of heavy metals and their cycle in the aquatic ecosystem [29].
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Figure 3: A schematic diagram showing the source of heavy metals and their cycle in the aquatic ecosystem [29].

Contamination of water with heavy metals

Heavy metals are present in the environment in various forms as solids, solutions and free ions that are absorbed by solid colloidal particles. Concentrations in the environment are due to natural sources such as rock weathering, dissolution of water-soluble salts, as well as human sources [30]. The essential and non-essential elements thereof are of particular importance in environmental toxicology because they are of high persistence and are highly persistent and have the potential for virulence [31]. The presence of metal contaminants in excess of the permissible limits has become a problem of concern. This situation arose as a result of the increase in population and the different activities of human life on earth and the lack of environmental regulations [32]. Industrialization and urbanization are the biggest reasons for the increase in water pollution with heavy metals, which leads to accumulation in the soil and sediments of water bodies [33]. The level of toxicity of heavy metals depends on several factors, including exposure of living organisms such as fish for a long time, their nature, and their biological role. It is may exist naturally in the aquatic environment and cause toxicity and pathological changes in fish tissues when it’s permissible restricted concentration increases as a result of agricultural and industrial activities [34].

The role of heavy metals in fish organs

Heavy metals such as Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn and Cu, have a direct role in affecting fish health as the biological and toxic roles of minerals have been extensively studied in recent years. Figure 4 shows the presence of some heavy metals in different tissues of fish. It has an influential role in biological functions in living organisms such as iron, and it is necessary for almost all living organisms to carry out phytological functions [35]. Manganese is found in surface waters, but high concentrations of it are very toxic to various systems in fish [36]. For aquatic organisms, zinc is an essential nutrient and environmental pollutant. The intestine is possibly the most important method for zinc absorption, but little is known regarding the zinc absorption pathway in fish [37]. Zinc does not form free radical ions and has antioxidant properties [38]. Copper is the main source for the food chain in a state of natural growth [39]. High concentrations of copper can be fatal to fish and other organisms in the aquatic environment [40]. Nickel has a significant role in inhibiting a number of enzymes and binds to some proteins, including albumin and metallothionine [41]. The different valences of chromium present play a fundamental role in its toxicity [42]. The toxic effect of lead can be avoided by various factors that affect its concentration. Cadmium is a heavy metal with unknown biological functions in aquatic organisms [43]. In general, free ions of heavy metals are toxic to organisms in the ecosystem if they exceed the internationally permissible limits [44].

Figure 4: Schematic diagram showing the role of heavy metals in the different tissues in fish [45].
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Figure 4: Schematic diagram showing the role of heavy metals in the different tissues in fish [45].

Mechanism of toxicity and uptake of heavy metals by fish tissues (Bioaccumulation)

Heavy metals enter aquatic environment mainly in three ways (!) Gills, then to other organs. Also, they accumulate on the skin surface cells or transfer to different tissues of the body through their blood. (!!)Its digestive tracts from food intake and more. (!!!) Subcutaneous layers and through osmotic exchange. Once heavy metals enter aquatic organisms, they cannot easily metabolize and degradation of various body organs occurs over time, as they easily accumulate in organs such as the liver and kidneys of animals. Bioaccumulation can be defined as the process by which certain toxic substances such as heavy metals occurring in the environment accumulate in the living organisms and their uptake is considered to be passive and involves diffusion gradients created by adsorption or binding of the metal to the tissue and cell surfaces. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish depends on a large variety of factors such as the physical and chemical properties of water, its bioavailability, and concentration in the water [46, 47]. Bioaccumulation is also dependent on size, age, sex and special differences, according to species with sensitivity to different minerals and cumulative metabolic activity [48, 49]. Heavy metals are both organic and inorganic pollutants in the aquatic environment and their concentrations in different parts of the organism’s bodies are determined as a biomarker on the level of pollution in the aquatic environment [50]. Heavy metals discharged into seas and rivers have the potential to harm aquatic species and the ecosystem. It also has the potential to cause changes in water quality that affect aquatic organisms and fish. Exposure to these toxins cannot be avoided as a solid or dissolved in water [51]. Heavy metals in fish move through the blood in different organs and thus accumulate to varying degrees [52]. Exposure to metals at very low concentrations has been studied to identify morphological and biotic changes in tissues that may directly affect fish quality [53]. There is an increase in the concentrations of a chemical in an organism over time compared to the concentration of chemicals in the environment. Therefore, bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs the toxic substance at a greater rate than the loss of that substance. Whereas, it results from the dynamic balance between exposure from the external environment and absorption into the body of an organism [54]. Fish are one of the most important vital monitoring devices in the aquatic system for estimating mineral pollution concentration. Because it provides many specific advantages in describing the physical properties of aquatic systems and in evaluating the changes that take place in them [55, 56]. Various minerals accumulate in the body of fish in indifferent quantities. These differences result from the affinity of the different minerals with fish tissue, and the difference in the uptake and excretion sedimentation [57]. Heavy metals in natural waters are in the form of water- insoluble particles or substances, including variable and fixed elements, and modified compounds are more dangerous to fish. The amounts of minerals in the variable fractions and the different metal ions depend on the surrounding environmental conditions. Fish at the top of the aquatic food chain and can accumulate in different tissues and organs because they have the ability to accumulate minerals several times higher than those found in sediments and water [58, 59]. Also, minerals accumulate in their different bodies and tissues and enter the human body through consumption, causing various diseases. Also, minerals may accumulate in fish in higher concentrations than in water because these minerals are not identifiable in water samples taken permanently [60, 61]. Figures 5 & 6 show the bioaccumulation sequence of heavy metals and how they are present in the food chain. Fish that live in polluted waters are characterized by the accumulation of heavy metals in their tissues. In general, fish can regulate mineral concentrations after bioaccumulation has occurred [62]. Therefore, the ability of each organ to regulate or accumulate minerals can be directly related to the total amount of minerals accumulated in that specific organ and when minerals reach high concentrations in the cells of the body they can alter the physiological performance of fish [63, 64]. Heavy metals are toxic if they are concentrated in high quantities in the tissues of the organism, and they can cause severe damage and become fatal for most organisms because they are capable of bioaccumulation and biomagnification [65].

Figure 5: Bioaccumulation of heavy metals due to different activities and its effect on the food chain in the aquatic environment [66].
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Figure 5: Bioaccumulation of heavy metals due to different activities and its effect on the food chain in the aquatic environment [66].
Figure 6: Schematic diagram of heavy metals and how they are in the food chain [67].
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Figure 6: Schematic diagram of heavy metals and how they are in the food chain [67].

Fish absorption of heavy metals from the environment occurs primarily through gills, food, and skin. The concentration of the toxic component in fish depends on the sex and age of the fish, the season and the location. Pollution of water sources through human activities leads to water loss and thus disturbance in the balance of the food chain [68]. Metals accumulated in fish tissues up to toxic concentrations depend on specific environmental conditions such as food chain, predation competition, water chemistry such as pH, and water hardness, moreover, interaction between minerals may also affect the accumulation [69]. Some other environmental and biological factors such as hypoxia, excessive storage, famine, growth, development and reproduction affect heavy metal accumulation negatively through altering metabolic, Biochemical and physiological functions [70, 71]. Topcuoglu C, et al. [72] studied heavy metal content levels in aquatic organizations. The results showed that heavy metals Pb, Cd and Cr were the most accumulated in the tissues of molluscs and shellfish, while iron and zinc were the least accumulated. Olga S, et al. [73] studied that toxic effects of minerals cause loss of nervous system functions and great damage to the content of blood, liver and other organs. Also, mineral accumulation in different organs of fish may cause functional disorders in them. In general, it was found that heavy metal toxicity causes changes in the condition parameter and the somatic liver index, and the occurrence of various diseases that appear upon dissection of diseased tissues [74]. To cause serious environmental damage. Ionic oxidizing forms of these minerals work with living environmental regulators to form corresponding toxic compounds where oxidation states play important roles in increasing the bioaccumulation of heavy metals [75]. The toxic effects of minerals mainly cause loss of nervous system function, and significant damage to the content of blood, liver and other organs. This damage results in physical weakness, allergic skin reactions, high blood pressure, and other symptoms, and fish growth may be impeded. One of the most obvious symptoms of the metal’s toxic effect on fish larvae is growth inhibition. Therefore, fish body length and mass are indicators of environmental conditions [76]. Table 3 shows the organs that can be targeted due to the accumulation of heavy metals in them and the emergence of some signs of disease in these organs.

Primary SourcesTarget OrgansClinical effects
ArsenicIndustrial Dust, Medicinal Uses of Polluted WaterPulmonary Nervous System, SkinPerforation of Nasal Septum, Respiratory Cancer,
CadmiumIndustrial dust and Fumes and Polluted Water And FoodRenal Skeletal PulmonaryProteinuria, Glucosuria, Osteomalacia,
ChromiumIndustrial dust and Fumes and Polluted FoodPulmonaryUlcer, Perforation of Nasal Septum, Respiratory Cancer
ManganeseIndustrial dust and FumesNervous SystemCentral and Peripheral Neuropathies
LeadIndustrial dust and Fumes And Polluted FoodNervous System, Hematopoietic System, RenalEncephalopathy, Central Nervous Disorders, Anemia.
NickelIndustrial dust, AerosolsPulmonary, SkinCancer, Dramatis
MercuryIndustrial dust and Fumes And Polluted WaterNervous System, Renal

Table 3: Shows the organs that can be targeted due to the accumulation of heavy metals and the emergence of some signs of disease

Aquatic organisms, such as fish, accumulate pollutants in them from the water indirectly through the food chain. The use of chemical fertilizers containing traces of heavy metals results in contamination of fish with these minerals [78]. The larvae of common carp showed under laboratory conditions in lead or copper water. It slowed the growth rate and decreased the survival rate. Exposure to copper inhibited ossification of the skeleton, while lead caused scoliosis [79]. Another study conducted on the same adult fish, with the fish being exposed to heavy metals, showed that red blood cell concentrations, blood glucose and total cholesterol increased significantly. The level of iron and copper in the blood has been increased. The results showed decreased vitamin C activity during chronic exposure to toxic heavy metals, indicating the presence of reactive and induced oxygen species in the oxidation process [80]. Long- term exposure to cadmium of 20 days or longer showed reduced growth of juvenile and adult rainbow trout [81].

Fish mortality increased with increased concentration and exposure to heavy metals. Perhaps this was due to these toxic minerals that directly affected the respiration of the tilapia fish. Similar results are shown by Chen AWY, et al. [82]. Heavy metal toxicity increases due to reduced gill diffusion capacity, decreased oxygen consumption, physiological imbalance and decreased respiratory rate. Moreover, small species that have not reached the sexual maturity are more sensitive to acute toxicity than larger species [83]. When fish are exposed to toxic substances that contain those heavy metals, an imbalance occurs and leads to changes in the metabolic processes of the fish that may affect the survival of aquatic life, such as the concentration of minerals in the cell membranes that cause their destruction as well as the biological processes that activate some enzymes in the synthesis of metabolites of compounds Organic in fish [84, 85]. Heavy metals accumulate in gills rapidly due to the large amount of water passing through them to increase oxygen under toxic pressure [86]. In a recent study, it was found that there is a strong relationship between heavy metal pollutants and parasites. It was found that parasites strengthen the toxic effects of heavy metals through the mechanisms used to protect fish, and this leads to negative effects on the physiological balance of fish. That study showed that some types of parasites can accumulate heavy metals in them several thousand times compared to those found in fish [66]. Table 4 shows the average permissible limits for some heavy metals in fish tissues.

PermissibleReferences
Copper1.00 ppmWHO [87]
Lead0.05 ppmWHO [87]
Lead0.1 mg/kgEgypt “E.O.S.Q.C. [88]
Lead0.5 ppmFAO/WHO [89]
Cadmium0.005 ppmWHO [87]
Cadmium0.05 ppmFAO/WHO [89]
Cadmium0.1 mg/kgEgypt “E.O.S.Q.C. [83]
Mercury0.001 ppmWHO [87]
Mercury0.05 mg/kgEgypt “E.O.S.Q.C. [88]
Mercury0.05 ppmFAO/WHO [89]

Table 4: Permissible limits of various some heavy metals) [53].

Hazard of Some Heavy Metals on Fish and Human Health

Iron (Fe)

Iron is a predominant component of industrial effluents discharged into aqueous environments. Ferrous Fe2+ is more toxic to fish than the form of iron Fe3+ [90]. Abbas HH, et al. [91] confirmed that the highest iron concentration in fish tissues was in the liver and gonads, and lowest in the brain, muscles and heart. It was found that respiratory disturbance was due to physical obstruction of the gills as a possible mechanism of iron toxicity. Since the surface of the gills of fish tends to be alkaline. Precipitated iron compounds have the dangerous effect of reducing the gill space available for breathing and damaging the respiratory epithelium, leading to fish strangulation and death. Also, iron in tilapia causes secondary platelet enlargement and necrosis through the study [92]. Collapsed nostrils reduce the diffusion distance between water and blood and reduce oxygen consumption. Also, iron compounds can be deposited on the surface of fish eggs, causing non-hatching [93]. (Fe) is an essential mineral for every living cell, the synthesis of hemoglobin and some enzymes. Iron deficiency leads to weakness and lack of focus, and anemia such as malaria is one of its most common deficiencies. Anemia leads to poor performance in the blood transfusion process and also reduces the supply of oxygen to the muscles, and reduces efficiency due to reduced hemoglobin content and poor endurance [94, 95].

Lead (Pb)

Lead has the potential to bioaccumulation in aquatic ecosystems, due to its persistence in the environment. Lead accumulates in fish tissues such as bones and gills during the gas exchange through the gills into the bloodstream. Some of the effects of lead poisoning include a decrease in cognitive abilities due to the destruction of nerve cells, abdominal pain and weak bones where lead replaces calcium and causes anemia due to reduced enzymes involved in red blood cell synthesis [96, 97, 98]. It is a neurotoxin that causes behavioral deficits in fish and also leads to reduced survival, growth and metabolism rates, as well as increased mucus formation in fish [99].

Increased levels of lead in water have harmful effects in most aquatic organisms as it leads to changes in the nervous system and blood components of fish and other organisms. It is considered a dangerous environmental pollutant because it has become the subject of many researchers due to its great risks to the health of aquatic organisms and humans [68]. The effect of lead on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) has been studied in terms of HSI and GSI; it caused a decrease in the HSI of fish while it had no effect on the GSI. The decrease in HSI was due to the consumption of energy reserves in the liver cells [71]. High exposure to lead may be fatal as it damages the nervous system of the unborn child. However, exposure to lead during childhood affects behavior and intelligence, and can lead to miscarriage and infertility (both in men and women) .Generally, lead affects children more than adults [100].

Children are most susceptible to lead infection because their renal excretion is weak, and more absorption occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, and the fetal brain shows greater sensitivity to the toxic effects of lead compared to the mature brain. In addition to symptoms of intestinal spasms and anemia, it can also cause neurotoxicity and nephrotoxicity [101, 102, 103].

Zinc (Zn)

It is the most abundant element after iron and is an essential element, it is present in almost every cell and participates in the synthesis of nucleic acids and is found in an abundant amount of enzymes. Zinc is involved in more complex functions, such as transmitting nerves, the immune system, and cell signalling. Zinc residue has direct toxicity to fish when water levels are increased [104]. The primary target of zinc toxicity is the gills, where calcium absorption is disrupted, which leads to hypocalcemia and ultimately death. Also, the fish kidney is a target organ for zinc accumulation [105]. Zinc is one of the essential elements important to humans and plants. It is considered as a cofactor for most of the enzyme involved in DNA metabolism. It is also important to stabilize a large amount of proteins, when there is an excess of it, it becomes toxic, as for zinc deficiency can lead to many functional disorders such as poor pregnancy outcomes, the development of chronic diseases, vascular diseases and cancers as well [106, 107, 108]. Zinc causes death, respiratory changes, reduced ovulation, and other harmful effects that threaten fish survival, and damage gills, skeletal muscles, and liver [109]. In a study of Nile tilapia exposed to zinc sulfate, the gills were congested. The gill sutures are swollen with a hollow epithelial covering of gills [110]. Exposure to zinc has been shown to cause pathological histological changes in the ovary of Nile tilapia, liver changes in Oreochromis mossambicus such as hyaline, hepatocyte emptying and vascular congestion [111].

Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium is widely distributed in the environment, and can be found in many food items, including some seafood products. Cadmium is a carcinogen and is toxic to the kidneys. Cadmium is a trace element that tends to bioaccumulate in organisms often at high levels [112]. It has been shown that this mineral accumulates in the kidneys, livers and gills of freshwater fish, but it can also be deposited in the heart and other tissues and cause uneven pathological changes in those organs [110, 111]. Cadmium is one of the most toxic elements that humans are exposed to in the environment. Once absorbed, the human body retains it, as it accumulates throughout life without symptoms appearing on the living organism. It is primarily toxic to the kidneys and especially to the adjacent tube cells. It can cause bone demineralization either through direct or indirect bone damage [100]. Fish that were exposed to cadmium developed disturbances in blood components. Where it destroys red blood cells and reduces hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration in addition to anemia. The cadmium present in the plasma of the goldfish significantly increased the activities of glutamic acid in the plasma. Cadmium alters carbohydrate metabolism, causing the blood sugar level to rise in some freshwater and marine fish [91]. The high doses of cadmium caused visible external lesions such as discoloration and necrosis of the skin (Cyprinus carpio, and Oreochromis mossambicus). Cadmium inhibits calcium absorption in the gills and may alter the metabolism of essential elements by affecting the normal tissue distribution of trace elements such as zinc and copper [113]. It is considered an endocrine irritant and can cause breast and prostate cancer in humans, as well as kidney damage, high blood pressure and impaired reproductive function [114]. Cadmium is a dangerous environmental pollutant in fish. It can cause anemia and vertebral fractures, osmotic regulation problems that reduce the efficiency of the digestive system. Stunted growth, irregular swimming, and deaths [115].

Copper (Cu)

Copper (Cu) is a micronutrient of cellular metabolism in living organisms due to it being a major component of metabolic enzymes, yet it can be highly toxic to intracellular mechanisms in aquatic animals in concentrations exceeding normal levels [116]. Copper accumulates in fish through the diet and the environment. Even at low environmental concentrations, the accumulation of copper in the fish shows significant pathological changes, including the presence of mucus on the surface of the body, under the gill cover, and between the strings of the gills [117]. (Cu) is essential for enzymes and essential for hemoglobin synthesis. Poor copper conduction can lead to decreased bone and blood vessel activity, as well as anemia and osteoporosis. Poor copper metabolism can result from two inherited diseases, mine disease and Wilson’s disease. Wilson’s disease can also be caused by a build-up of copper in the brain and eyes in the form of a Kayaer-Fleischer ring. Excessive copper intake may also damage the kidneys [118, 119]. Heavy metals such as copper reduced the respiration rate and metabolism of freshwater fish. Also, the decrease in glycogen number, tissue oxygen consumption and pyruvate level of the whole body of Cyprinus carpio due to stress from copper exposure was determined [120]. Copper reduces resistance of fish to diseases by disrupting altering swimming, causing oxidative damage, impairing respiration, disrupting osmoregulation structure and pathology of vital organs such as gills, kidney, liver and other stem cells [121]. Copper exposed different fish species posed behavioural changes such as decrease in swimming ability and food intake and increase in operculum movements [70]. Some pathological signs appeared in the different tissues of the fish upon exposure to copper. The exposure of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to sublethal levels of copper showed tissue changes such as gills and liver. Also, Oreochromis mossambicus exposed to copper showed pathological alterations in the testis (necrosis of testicular hemorrhage, sclerosis, dissociation of primary sperm and interstitial tissue [122].

Mercury

The different forms of mercury are symptoms of many different diseases. It causes spontaneous abortion, congenital anomalies, and gastrointestinal disorders such as esophagitis, intoxication, abnormal irritation and allergic reactions characterized by rashes, peeling of hands and feet, gingivitis, stomatitis and neurological disorders [123]. Mercury has no known beneficial role in human metabolism, and its ability to influence the distribution and retention of other heavy metals makes it one of the most toxic metals. The relatively high solubility and stability of some mercury salts in water enable them to be easily absorbed and bio- converted to methyl mercury by certain fish. Therefore mercury is found in its highest concentrations in carnivores such as sharks and some tuna. These forms are easily absorbed through the digestive system and have become a major source of human exposure to mercury. Although humans can excrete a small amount of mercury in urine or feces as well as through sweating, they lack a robust, active mechanism for excreting mercury, which allows levels to build up with chronic exposure. When ingested, mercury can spread to many organs, but it may be concentrated in the brain and kidneys. It can also cross the placenta and is found in breast milk. Mercury exerts its toxic effects by competing with and displacing iron and copper from the active site of enzymes involved in energy production. Mercury may also build up in Thyroid gland and increased risk of autoimmune

Figure 7: Effects of heavy metals on human health [128].
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Figure 7: Effects of heavy metals on human health [128].

disorders [124, 125, 126]. All heavy metals in surface waters are present in a colloid in particle and dissolved phases, although the solute concentrations are generally low. The solubility of heavy metals in surface waters is affected by the following factors, mostly water pH, the type and concentration of bonds on which the metal can be absorbed, the oxidation state of mineral components and the oxidation-reduction environment. Figures 7-9 illustrate the dynamics of heavy metals in fish tissues and their effect on human health.

Different Methods of Detecting Heavy Metals in the Organs of Different Fish (updates)

Techniques in determining metals concentration to include the

  • Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS),
  • X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF),
  • Particle Induced Gamma Ray Emission (PIGE),
  • Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA),
  • Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE)
  • The Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry Technique (ICP OES) [127].
Figure 8: Sources of heavy metals and its hazard to the human body [129].
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Figure 8: Sources of heavy metals and its hazard to the human body [129].
Figure 9: Illustrates the impact of heavy metal-loaded industrial waste on general health of fish and fish consumers [130].
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Figure 9: Illustrates the impact of heavy metal-loaded industrial waste on general health of fish and fish consumers [130].

Histopathological Change and Biomarkers

Detection of pathological changes by heavy metals in fish tissues

Pathophysiology provides a faster way to detect traces of heavy metals and pathogens in the organs of different fish, and can be considered as an indicator of many abnormal states of the fish ecosystem. However, heavy metal diseases vary according to duration of exposure, mineral concentration, and genetic susceptibility. When studying the histopathological effects of heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and zinc in water and fish, the characteristic pathological and cumulative changes were in the gills, liver and kidneys. Changes in the gills were lamellar epithelial hyperplasia, fusion, necrosis, and filament separation. Hepatic and renal changes were vacuoles and hydrophobic degeneration of both hepatocytes and renal epithelial cells that were separated [131, 132]. Another study showed the effect of some metals on other fish species, emptying of gill epithelial cells and intestines, lipoid enteritis, lamellar necrosis and infiltration of mononuclear cells [133, 134]. Figure 10 illustrate the pathological changes that occur in the gills to infer the pathological effects and changes of heavy metals.

Figure 10: The gills of tilapia appear in areas heavily contaminated with heavy metals, showing lamellar necrosis [135].
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Figure 10: The gills of tilapia appear in areas heavily contaminated with heavy metals, showing lamellar necrosis [135].

Biomarkers, Fish Health and Impact of Heavy Metals

Biomarkers are powerful tools for detecting the effect of exposure to near-lethal concentrations of a specific substance or complex chemical mixtures, and for evaluating the less obvious effects on organisms that respond to environmental pollution by altering life functions or the accumulation of toxins in their bodies, such as fish, shellfish, algae, protozoa, large plants and bacteria [136]. Fish has become a favorite subject for biomarker research due to its sensitivity to changes in temperature, natural environment and water quality. Water degradation and pollution also negatively affect fish health, which can lead to mortality and ecosystem degradation [137]. Fish biomarker including assessment of molecular, cellular and physiological change that was used to monitor the biological effect of toxic substances, especially exposure to heavy metals. Interest in biomarkers of heavy metal impact was identified in parallel with the development of a biomonitoring program. Some studies showed fish livers the highest popularity in studying heavy metal toxicity, followed by muscle, gills, kidneys and brain. Types of fish biomarkers in aquatic organizations are widely used in assessing the quality of environmental pollutant systems [138]. Toxic pollutants often cause characteristic responses in an infected organism by providing evidence of exposure to one or more chemical pollutants because they are a biological marker of contamination in the organism’s body [139]. Fish are sensitive to the effects of a complex mixture of chemicals because they cause they usually have a wide range of effects and responses in them ranging from the cellular and biochemical level to the level of behavior, growth and reproduction during low and limited exposure to toxic substances. Heavy and prolonged exposure may lead to a series of functional and structural changes that impair vital functions. Tissue chemical concentrations are therefore excellent indicators of the environmental load of a specific toxin but do not usually reflect physiological and environmental outcomes directly [140]. Heavy metals from direct contact have been shown to bioaccumulate by inhalation in hepatocytes prior to distribution to fish tissues and cause abnormalities such as homeostatic imbalance, enzyme inhibition and growth retardation at an elevated level [141]. Heavy metals such as copper reduce the respiration rate and metabolism of freshwater fish. Significant reduction in glycogen count, tissue oxygen consumption and disk level of the whole body of Cyprinus carpio due to stress induced copper exposure. Further studies can be done based on fish biomarkers which can aid in estimating the level of toxicity by monitoring fish behavior, cellular change, enzyme and protein response. [120, 142].

Conclusions and Future Expectations

Although some heavy metals are essential for animals, plants, and many other organisms, their toxic effects are seen through metabolic interference and mutations. Heavy metals can have toxic effects on various organs [143, 144]. They can get into the water across drainage, atmosphere, soil erosion and all human activities in different ways. Heavy metals are the most pollutants in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and toxic environmental chemicals that are persistent and bio- accumulative are more dangerous. Heavy metals are dangerous due to these three properties:

persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. The most environmentally hazardous heavy metals include Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb. The food transport of these elements in aquatic and terrestrial food chains has important implications for human health. It is extremely important to assess and monitor the concentrations of potentially toxic heavy metals and metals in different environmental sectors as well as in living organisms. Steps must be taken to minimize the impact of these elements on human health and the environment the following recommendations:

  • The concentrations of heavy metals present in the water environment must be documented, as they are considered a reference for all researchers in this field.
  • Levels of potentially toxic heavy metals in water, sediments, soil and living organisms should be assessed and monitored.
  • Efforts should be made to reduce heavy metal pollution in the aquatic environment which threatens the health of fish and subsequently the health of consumers.
  • The consumer public should be educated about the harmful effects of toxic heavy metals on human health and the environment.
  • Industrial wastewater must be effectively analyzed before being discharged into natural water bodies.
  • Encourage scientific research on environmental assessment of toxic chemicals, including toxic heavy metals, to protect human health and the environment.

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@article{aly2023,
  title   = {Evaluation of Heavy Metal Pollutants of Water on Fish Health and
its Impact on Human Health},
  author  = {Aly MYM},
  journal = {International Journal of Oceanography & Aquaculture},
  year    = {2023},
  volume  = {7},
  number  = {3},
  doi     = {10.23880/ijoac-16000259}
}
Aly MYM (2023). Evaluation of Heavy Metal Pollutants of Water on Fish Health and
its Impact on Human Health. International Journal of Oceanography & Aquaculture, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.23880/ijoac-16000259
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Evaluation of Heavy Metal Pollutants of Water on Fish Health and
its Impact on Human Health
AU  - Aly MYM
JO  - International Journal of Oceanography & Aquaculture
PY  - 2023
VL  - 7
IS  - 3
DO  - 10.23880/ijoac-16000259
ER  -